Leonardo Da Vinci free essay sample

Leonardo was born on April 15, 1452, in the Tuscan hill town of Vinci, in the lower valley of the Arno River in the territory of Florence. Messer Piero Fruosino di Antonio da Vinci, a Florentine notary was his father, and Catherina, a peasant who may have been a slave from the Middle East was his mother. Leonardo had no surname in the modern sense, da Vinci simply meaning of Vinci: his full birth name was Leonardo di Ser Piero da Vinci, meaning Leonardo, son of Ser Piero from Vinci. Little is known about Leonardos early life. He spent his first five years in the hamlet of Anchiano, and then lived in the household of his father, grandparents and uncle, Francesco, in the small town of Vinci. His father had married a sixteen-year-old girl named Albiera, who loved Leonardo but died young. One, which he regarded as an omen, was when a kite dropped from the sky and hovered over his cradle, its tail feathers brushing his face. We will write a custom essay sample on Leonardo Da Vinci or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The second occurred while exploring in the mountains. He discovered a cave and was both terrified that some great monster might lurk there, and driven by curiosity to find out what was inside. Educational Background: In 1466, at the age of fourteen, Leonardo was apprenticed to the most successful artists of his day, Andrea di Cione, known as Verrocchio. Verrocchio educated Leonardo humanities. Other famous painters such as Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli, and Lorenzo di Credi were apprenticed with the workshop. Leonardo was exposed to technical and artistic skills. He had the opportunity to learn drafting, chemistry, leather working, mechanics, carpentry, drawing, painting, sculpting and modeling. Much of the painted production of Verrocchios workshop was done by his employees. According to Vasari, Leonardo work with Verrocchio on his Baptism of Christ, painting the young angel holding Jesus’ robe in a manner that was so far superior to his masters that Verrocchio put down his brush and never painted again. Leonardo himself was the model for two works by Verrocchio, which were the bronze statue of David in the Bargello and the Archangel Michael in Tobias and the Angel. By 1472, at the age of twenty, Leonardo qualified as a master in the Guild of St Luke, the guild of artists and octors of medicine, but even after his father set him up in his own workshop, his attachment to Verrocchio was such that he continued to work with him. Leonardos earliest work was done in pen and ink on August 5th, 1473; Arno valley. Training: Practically nothing is known about Leonardo’s boyhood, but Vasari informs us that Ser Piero, impressed with the remarkable character of his sonâ₠¬â„¢s genius, took some of his drawings to Andrea Del Verrocchio, an intimate friend, and begged him earnestly to express an opinion on them. Verrocchio was so astonished at the power they revealed that he advised Ser Piero to send Leonardo to study under him. Leonardo thus entered the studio of Andrea Del Verrocchio about 1469-1470. In the workshop of that great Florentine sculptor, goldsmith, and artist he met other craftsmen, metal workers, and youthful painters, among whom was Botticelli, at that moment of his development a jovial _habitue_ of the Poetical Supper Club, who had not yet given any premonitions of becoming the poet, mystic, and visionary of later times. There also Leonardo came into contact with that unoriginal painter Lorenzo di Credi, his junior by seven years. He also, no doubt, met Perugino, whom Michelangelo called â€Å"that blockhead in art. † The genius and versatility of the Vincian painter was, however, in no way dulled by intercourse with lesser artists than himself; on the contrary he vied with each in turn, and readily outstripped his fellow pupils. Influences: Da Vinci studied under Verrocchio, where Botticelli was also a student. His main influences were Masaccio, Donatello, Fra Filippo Lippi, Piero Della Francesca and Uccello. Younger artist who were in Florence while Da Vinci was there included Michelangelo, whom he despised, and Raphael. Leonardo was the son of a very rich and influential man (Yes, he was illegitimate, but he had a very extensive education and was surrounded by important people all his life). Da Vinci would study from the great people who came before you. Da Vinci the scientist observed nature and systematically recorded his observations. He studied every detail of the human body by dissecting corpses. In his study of animals da Vinci focused on the mystery of flight. His copious notes covered a vast range of topics from the sun, moon, and stars, to fossils and flying. His works provided a base for scientists to work from for centuries. During the Renaissance, math and science went hand in hand, thanks to the Greeks. da Vinci, along with other artists of the day, used geometry to produce a new style of painting, a style that allowed the observe to see the scene as in real life. This developed into the concept of perspective, which used light and depth perception to depict a 3D scene on a 2D surface. Because he typified the idea of the Renaissance. The term Renaissance Man refers to one who was capable of excelling at a wide variety of activities. Leonardo was an accomplished scientist, architect, engineer, painter, designer, physiologist, etc. Truly he was not simply a man of the Renaissance; he was the prototype of the Renaissance Man. Personality issues Subject matter: idk Life story: 452: Leonardo is born close to the town of Vinci in the countryside near Florence 1466-1469: Leonardo moves to Florence and becomes an apprentice in the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio 1472: Leonardo paints one of the angels in Verrocchio’s painting ‘The baptism of Christ’. He also finishes his apprenticeship, becoming a master artist and a member of Florence’s Guild of Saint Luke 1481: Leonardo leaves Florence for Milan, where he finds work at the court of Duke Ludovico Sforza 1490: Leonardo works on the Sforza horse and draws the Vitruvian Man, among other things. Salai joins the studio as an apprentice. 1497: Work on ‘The last supper’ in under way. 1498: Ludovico Sforza gives Leonardo a vineyard in Milan, but there is not much time for him to enjoys it, as in the fall of 1499, French troops invade the city and Leonardo leaves 1500-1505: Leonardo works in Florence again, along with his great rival, the artist and sculptor Michelangelo 1503: Leonardo begins work on his most famous painting the ‘Mona Lisa’. In 1506-1513, he is back in Milan-the city is now ruled by French 1513: Leonardo moves to Rome, where he lives and works at the Vatican court(the pope’s headquarters). 516: Leonardo moves to France to work for the king, Francis I. Salai is one of his companions. In 1519, Leonardo dies, at the age of 67, in Amboise, France. Level of success: Today, there are records of only few Da Vinci paintings, and 20 notebooks. Thankfully, these works have been preserved over the hundreds of years since Leonardos time, and while his works are scattered in different areas of the globe, everyone can enjoy Da Vinci through the numerous books detailing his life, or through any of the many Da Vinci posters that have been printed. A well-known master in the history of art, Leonard Da Vinci is renown by people all over the map, and those of us who cannot travel to view the true works that the genius created can at least bring home a piece of him when we buy Da Vinci posters or prints. His most famous paintings are among the most influential works ever created. Legacy, Impact: Leonardos greatness lies in the diversity of his knowledge. His depth of understanding across a broad range of disciplines sets him aside from his contemporaries. Even by todays standards it would be difficult to find an individual who embraced Anatomy, Biology, Engineering, Architecture, and Science in addition to being one of the greatest painters of all time. The tragedy is that much of his scientific work was not published in his lifetime, and was only re-discovered many years after his death at a time when science had already embraced many of his ideas. There is little doubt that had his work been publicised in the Renaissance era it would have advanced the knowledge of the time. His left handed mirror-writing also caused problems. It created a code that needed breaking before his unpunctuated manuscripts could be understood. Also many of his scientific papers have been lost or damaged and are dispersed throughout the world. As an artist it is universally agreed that Leonardos marriage of art and science was significant for the advancement of painting techniques. He was famous for being a great painter long before his scientific work was acknowledged and appreciated. So the basis of his genius lies in his artistic achievements. The contradiction is that he designed weapons of war and, at the same time, marveled at the beauty of nature that these devices could ultimately destroy. Some historical characters stride like giants through the pages of history, think of Newton, Einstein, and Aristotle, Leonardo is certainly cast in the same mold. If art is about an emotional response then Leonardo da Vinci delivers at the highest level. I have been privileged to see a number of Leonardos paintings in the flesh; at the Louvre in Paris and also at the National Gallery in London. On 21st February 2009 I traveled to Manchester to view 10 of his drawings from the Royal Windsor collection. Needless to say these small works oozed quality. In a society were fame is fleeting and celebrity is often acquired very cheaply, it is refreshing that an artist, who died 500 years ago, can cause a queue to form, waiting in line to view his work. Famous works: Mona Lisa, the last supper, St. John the Baptist, and The Baptism of Christ are the most famous paintings of Leonardo Da Vinci. Especially Mona Lisa. Annunciation, Ginevra de’ Benci, Benois Madonna, Madonna of the Carnation, St. Jerome in the Wilderness, Adoration of the Magi, Virgin of the rocks, Lady with an Ermine, Madonna Litta, Portrait of a Musician, La belle ferronniere, the virgin and child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist, Madonna of the yarn winder, The virgin and child with St. Anne, and Bacchus are less famous paintings of Da Vinci. Leonardo Da Vinci not only painted great paintings, but he have invented many of the transportation/vehicles and other things we use in today’s life. For flight, there are glider, helicopter, and parachute, for military; there are automobile car, machine gun, scaling gun, and tank. Viola organista and double hull are the most famous between people. Viola organista is an experimental musical instrument Da Vinci invented. It was the first bowed keyboard instrument ever to be devised and Double hull is a ship hull design and construction method where the bottom and sides of the ship have two layers of watertight hull surface. And the space between the two hulls is sometimes used for storage of fuel or ballast water. Old age Court records of 1476 show that Leonardo and three other young men were charged with sodomy, and acquitted. From that date until 1478 there is no record of his work or even of his whereabouts, although it is assumed that Leonardo had his own workshop in Florence between 1476 and 1481. From September 1513 to 1516, Leonardo spent much of his time living in the Belvedere in the Vatican in Rome, where Raphael and Michelangelo were both active at the time. In October 1515, Francois I of France recaptured Milan. On 19th December, Leonardo was present at the meeting of Francois I and Pope Leo X, which took place in Bologna. It was for Francois that Leonardo was commissioned to make a mechanical lion which could walk forward, then open its chest to reveal a cluster of lilies. In 1516, he entered Francois service, being given the use of the manor house Clos Luce near the kings residence at the royal Chateau Amboise. It was here that he spent the last three years of his life, accompanied by his friend and apprentice, Count Francesco Melzi, supported by a pension totaling 10,000 scudi. Leonardo died at Clos Luce, France, on May 2, 1519. Francois I had become a close friend. Vasari records that the King held Leonardos head in his arms as he died, although this story, beloved by the French and portrayed in romantic paintings by Ingres, Menageot and other French artists, may be legend rather than fact. Vasari also tells us that in his last days, Leonardo sent for a priest to make his confession and to receive the Holy Sacrament. In accordance to his will, sixty beggars followed his casket. He was buried in the Chapel of Saint-Hubert in the castle of Amboise. Melzi was the principal heir and executor, receiving as well as money, Leonardos paintings, tools, library and personal effects. Leonardo also remembered his other long-time pupil and companion, Salai and his servant Battista di Vilussis, who each received half of Leonardos vineyards, his brothers who received land, and his serving woman who received a black cloak of good stuff with a fur edge. Some twenty years after Leonardos death, Francois was reported by the goldsmith and sculptor Benevento Cellini as saying: There had never been another man born in the world who knew as much as Leonardo, not so much about painting, sculpture and architecture, as that he was a very great philosopher. A painter, a sculptor, an architect and an engineer, Leonardo Da Vincis numerous skills have earned him the title of renaissance master. Da Vincis fascination with science and his in-depth study of human anatomy aided him in mastering the realist art form. While Leonardos counterparts were known to create static figures in their works, Leonardo always tried to incorporate movement and expression into his own paintings. All the personages in his works are painted with great accuracy and detail that it is sometimes said that Da Vinci painted from the bones outward. Having lived until the age of 67, Leonardo experienced a very long career that was filled with times during which the painter was celebrated, but at times he was also humiliated and cast away. His life experiences all influenced his works and often, his paintings never left the sketchpad, or were only partially completed, as Leonardo often abandoned his commissions in order to flee from social situations. Leonardo was home schooled, his father taught him only simple things. Leonardo used math in some of his artwork. He used the Golden ratio in his paintings, Mona Lisa, The Last Supper, His Self Portrait and Madonna of the Rocks. He studied mathematics, geometry and polymath. Leonardo Da Vinci lived and took math lessons from Luca Pacioli. Luca Pacioli was making a book, and Leonardo Da Vinci was illustrating for him. Many other scientists ignored Leonardo Da Vinci because he did not know Latin or algebra. Leonardo studied, hydraulics, pyrotechnics, science, acoustics, optics, medicine, biology, anatomy, natural history, zoology, cartography, philosophy and botany. Leonardo Da Vinci was so fascinated by human anatomy, that he would sneak into hospitals at night, and dissect human bodies. He only studied anatomy for 20 years, and then moved on.

Network Debate essays

Network Debate essays It was a brutal race. They interrupted our daily scheduled shows with boisterous promises they could never fulfill. They invaded our towns and cities with their advertisements; their faces defaced our buses and benches. And still, no one has emerged as the clean victor. Yes, the battle for network coverage of the Presidential race was fierce. It was an exciting race indeed. On CBS, Dan Rathers predictions rolled off his lips like sweat off a dancing bear; he was hotter than a Loredo parking lot. NBCs Tom Brokaw entertained us with fancy charts and sarcastic guests. Fox was all eye candy; 3-D charts superimposed over the Bush mansion glittered with incorrect predictions. ABC had the honor of being the first network to announce and retract Governor Bushs victory, while on CNN we heard too close to call more often than the vote in Florida has been counted. Comedy Centrals Indecision 2000 delighted us with irreverent commentary by John Stewart and analysis by Bob Dole. I did not vote. With my remote, I was indifferent; it was all too annoying. How I wished something exciting would replace these endless predictions and corrections. I prayed for a TiVo so I could pick what and when I wanted to watch. Bereft of TiVos brilliant technology, I did what any other upstanding, bored American citizen would have done: I rented a movie. ...

Examples of the Verb Ride, Including Ride Past Tense

Examples of the Verb Ride, Including Ride Past Tense The verb ride means to sit on and control the movement of a means of transportation such as a bike, car, or a horse, as well as to be a passenger being conveyed in or on such a means of transportation. The verb is used in English to express how a person or thing is using that transportation, such as, I rode in a car or He rides a horse. Ride is an irregular verb because it does not take a regular conjugation pattern. For example, the verb want is a regular verb in English, where the present tense is simply the verb, itself, often preceded by a pronoun, such as I want, or an infinitive, such as to want. For a regular verb in the past tense, you would simply add ed, as in I wanted. By contrast, ride is an irregular verb because its conjugations do not follow the pattern of a regular-conjugation verb such as want. The verb takes the same conjugations as the irregular verb drive, for example, which conjugates with a pattern of drive-drove-driven, depending on the tense. The verb ride, then, is the same as a regular verb in English, taking the form ride in the present tense. But in the past tense, the root changes, with the i changing to o, to form the verb rode. The past participle is completely different, but more on that below. Key Takeaways: The Irregularity of Ride The verb ride does not follow a regular conjugation pattern.  Its conjugation pattern is the same as for the verb drive, which conjugates as drive-drove-driven, depending on the tense.In the present tense, the conjugation of ride is the same as for a regular verb taking the form ride.In the past tense, the root changes, with the i swapping out for o, to form the verb rode. The past participle is ridden, as in: He has ridden the bike. Conjugating the Verb Ride It can be helpful for English learners to view the basic conjugations of a verb. The table provides conjugations for ride in the present, past, and past participle tenses. Present I ride you ride he/she/it rides we ride you ride they ride Past I rode you rode he/she/it rode we rode you rode they rode Past Participle I/you/he/she/it/we/you/they (have) ridden Note that the base form is  ride, the simple past tense is rode, and the past participle is  ridden. Example Sentences of the Verb Ride Here are sentences of the  verb  ride in nearly all  tenses  including active and passive forms, as well as  conditional  and  modal  forms. The tense is indicated in bold, followed by a brief explanation of when to use the particular tense, together with three example sentences. Present Simple This is the basic present tense. Use it to indicate something that occurs in the present. He rides his motorcycle to work.They ride to work together.I like to ride my horse. Present Simple Passive Though using passive voice is not considered the best practice for writing, there are conjugations for this voice, including for the verb ride. Use this form of the passive voice to express something that is happening to or being done by someone. That horse is ridden by Tom.The mower is ridden by Joe.The bus is ridden by the passengers. Present Continuous The present continuous is used to express an ongoing action. Were riding our bikes to the park this afternoon.They are riding the horses to the track.Sally is riding her scooter. Present Continuous Passive This tense is similar to the present continuous but in passive form. The horses are being ridden by tourists at the moment.The scooter is being ridden by Sally.The horses are being ridden to the park by them. Present Perfect The present perfect connotes an  action or situation that started in the past and continues in the present. Have you ever ridden a horse?They havent ridden their scooters for years.She has ridden her bike to work for six months. Present Perfect Passive This tense is similar to the present perfect but in the passive voice. Has that horse by ridden yet?The scooters havent been ridden by them for years.The bike hasnt been ridden for months. Present Perfect Continuous This tense is used to  refer to an unspecified time between before now and now. We have been riding bikes since 9 a.m.She has been riding the open road since last night.He has been riding his scooter for the past three hours. Past Simple The past simple is, as the name implies, the simple past. It expresses an action that occurred and was completed, in the past. He rode his bike to work last week.She rode her scooter to work.The passenger rode in the car. Past Simple Passive This tense is the same as the simple past but in the passive voice. That motorcycle was ridden by Elvis.The scooter was ridden by her.The horse was ridden by the equestrian competitor. Past Continuous The past continuous shows that an ongoing  action was happening at a specific moment in the past. He was riding his bike when his cell phone rang.She was riding her scooter to work when the police officer gave her a ticket.The equestrian competitor was riding her horse when she was stopped by a fan. Past Continuous Passive As in the other tenses, the past continuous passive is the same as the past continuous but in the passive voice. The horse was being ridden by Jack when it fell.The scooter was being ridden by her when a policeman stopped her.The bike was being ridden by him when his cell phone rang. Past Perfect The past perfect refers to something that occurred in the past before another action in the past. They had already ridden the horse before they bought it.She had already ridden the scooter before she got into an accident.He had already ridden the bike when he got a flat. Past Perfect Passive This tense is the same as the past perfect but in the passive voice. The horse had been ridden before it was sold.The bike had been ridden before its tire went flat.The scooter had already been ridden when it was in an accident. Past Perfect Continuous This tense expresses  something that started in the  past  and continued until another event happened, also in the  past. They had been riding for two hours when the accident happened.She had been riding for an hour before she received a ticket.The competitor had been riding for two months before her first fan approached her. Future The future tense expresses something that will happen in the future. She will ride her bike to work.He will ride with the other passengers.The competitor will ride the horse at the nationals. Future   passive The future passive expresses a future action but in the passive voice. That horse will be ridden by the queen.The scooter will be ridden by her.The bike will be ridden by the commuter. Future Continuous This tense expresses an action that will start and continue in the future. This time next week we will be riding our motorcycles down the highway on holiday.By next year, we will all be riding scooters to work.By the time I get to Phoenix, Ill be riding a train. Future Perfect The future perfect expresses an action that starts and finishes at some point in the future. She will have ridden all the horses in the stable by the end of the month.The commuters will have ridden the scooters to work 100 times by the end of the year.By the time I get to Phoenix, I will have ridden for 66 hours. Future Possibility The future possibility expresses something that might happen in the future. She might ride Lucky.The gambler might break even.The commuter might save time if he takes a different route. Real Conditional The real conditional expresses uncertainty about whether an action will occur. If she rides her motorcycle, she will change her clothes.If he commutes by bike, he will save money.If the jockey rides the horse Affirmed, he will win the race. Present Modal Modal verbs are  auxiliary (helping) verbs that  express ability, possibility, permission, or obligation. The present modal expresses these things in the present. She should ride that horse.I may ride that scooter.She might get a ticket if she rides too fast. Past Modal The past modal is similar to the present modal but in the past tense. She cant have ridden her bike!I might have ridden that scooter, but Im not sure.She might have ridden to fast before receiving a moving violation. Quiz: Conjugate with Ride Use the verb to ride to conjugate the following sentences. The quiz answers are listed below. In some cases, more than one answer may be correct. That horse _____ by Tom._____ you ever _____ a horse?He _____ his bike when his cell phone rang.She _____ her motorcycle to work next week.If she _____ her motorcycle, she will change her clothes.He _____ his bike to work last week.That motorcycle _____ by Elvis!He _____ his motorcycle to work.We _____ bikes since nine this morning.If she _____ her motorcycle, she will change her clothes. Quiz Answers is riddenHave riddenwas ridingis going to rideridesrodewas riddenrideshave been ridingrides

Arts and Urban Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Arts and Urban Life - Essay Example Punch's versifier detailed 'The muck and mud that still our movements clog', while Conrad made the same point more sonorously in describing 'the enormity of cold, black, wet, muddy, inhospitable accumulation of bricks, slates, and stones, things in themselves unlovely and unfriendly to man." (Freeman, 89). The city of London is perhaps one of the oldest yet also one of the most powerful cities in the world. This account speaks about the atmosphere, weather, but not the people. All urban histories states about the city in terms of physical structures and ultrastructural layouts. When the reality is that the people of the city and their lives day in and day out constitute the core of urban life, which embodies their struggle, aspirations, and moments of heightened awareness, then art in the urban life in any form will also express those. In the detective fiction of Arthur Conan Doyle or Richard Harding Davis, fog underlay or encouraged the city's criminal associations, with Sherlock Holmes speculating as to how the 'thief or murderer could roam London' 'as the tiger does the jungle', since figures are but 'dimly seen, then blend once more into the cloud bank' (Doyle, CA, 913). The question arises, what is a city, is it the demonstrable difficulties of urban life, its malign incompatibility with human wishes, or entirely something else arising out of it. In some cases, the metropolis itself has been assigned a character in itself, which responds enthusiastically to the process of transformation in the city space and the ways it is perceived by the individual. Radical artists such as Whistler and Monet were exploring similar possibilities during the 1870s. Such figures moved away from the particularization of realist art and conventional topographic painting, concerning themselves with atmospheric evocation. James's immersion, in all senses, in London's fog was therefore something he shared with its most famous visual chroniclers, impressionist painters, even though he initially had little obvious sympathy for their art (James, 219). Accounts of London by Dickens, and, even more so, by Gissing, repeatedly emphasized the city's aromas and the tidal roar of its 'flaring and clamorous' streets where 'the odors of burning naphtha and fried fish were pungent on the wind'. To judge from The Princess Casamassima, the Thames is equally noisy and smelly, with Hyacinth (Gissing, 111), Robinson observing the 'grinding, puffing, smoking, splashing activity of the turbid flood', but in his own trip down river, James concentrates on the tonal limitation s of the scene, its blacks and sables, silvers and grays (Jackson, 277). Baldwin's "Another Country" is a novel, but more of an essay on love. Love on the backdrop of a city, where life at least takes the form of impressionist art. Love is a theme that the author had explored both on homosexual and heterosexual perspectives. On closer examination, there is another theme in this novel, racialism. While love is a necessity and is utterly constructive, hate is terribly destructive, and this theme is core concept

Sustainable Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sustainable Development - Essay Example Theoretically speaking, all developmental activities can be carried out in an entirely sustainable manner, and that is in no way a thing that is impossible to achieve. But the real-life scenario is something totally different. For the purpose of successfully implementing various measures that are aimed at bringing about sustainable development many political issues and other challenges have to be confronted. As a matter of fact, all such matters are chiefly responsible for the current state of affairs, where a lot is still undone in the realm (of sustainable development) (1)Sustainable DevelopmentEven though the concept of sustainable development is indeed a noble one, yet, much progress has not been displayed, till date. Perhaps, the chief factor for this is that, many people do not have a clear understanding of the term. Overall, the concept is rather ambiguous, conveying different meanings. (1)As mentioned earlier, several summits and conferences aimed at promoting sustainable dev elopment have been taking place, on the International landscape. For instance, the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development) came into existence in the year 1992. Apart from the European Union, a total of 192 countries were a part of that convention. A decade later, in the year 2002, all of those regions gave a solemn commitment that the rate at which the Globe is losing its biodiversity would be reduced, over the subsequent eight years. But that did not happen, as is evident by the corresponding scenario., even as the year 2010 came to an end. (1) The concept of sustainable development has both a strong point and also a shortcoming. Numerous political and economic entities of the World have been brought on a common platform, by sustainable development. That denotes the concept’s strong point. But at the same time, none of those parties have been successful in initiating any practical policies that substantially contribute towards the cause of sustainable development. (3) Sustainable Development and Economy Many people are having the misconception that, by adhering to the norms of sustainable development, a growth economy cannot be realized, and that it leads to a steady-state economy. That is nothing but just a myth, and the following would clearly explain this. It needs to be noted that sustainable development endeavors to meet the needs of the present, by fully keeping in view the well-being of the future. Here, the vital point worth mentioning is that, all those needs can be successfully met only by achieving required economic growth. Similarly, all the standards of this concept can be successfully implemented only when there is economic prosperity. To put the matter in a nutshell, economic growth and sustainability are strongly connected with each other. And meticulous adherence to the guidelines of the latter would

She Stoops to Conquer Essay -- Oliver Goldsmith

She Stoops to Conquer Oliver Goldsmith had an immediate hit on his hands after the first performance of his play She Stoops to Conquer on March 15, Covent Garden. During the eighteenth century She Stoops to Conquer was popular throughout England and its popularity even spread to the then still young, America. Before its debut, Goldsmith took great pains in choosing the right title for his play. Some of the titles that he rejected were The Old House a New Inn, The Mistakes of the Night (which became its subtitle), and The Belle's Stratagem (Ferguson 26). One of the reasons that this comedy was such a hit was its departure from the high minded, more dramatic comedy of the day. Though the play does not rely solely on slapstick comedy, some of its best scenes are farcical. The play itself has been called a "laughing comedy" and many of the best comic moments are still as funny today as they were over 200 years ago (Danziger 57). Tying with Dryden's Amphityron, She Stoops to Conquer is the most entertaining eighteenth-century play that I have read to date. The plot concerns the "Mistakes of the Night" and the resulting problems that come between two sets of lovers. The story centers on Charles Marlow and George Hasting's attempts to court Kate Hardcastle and Constance Neville, and how a practical joke played by Kate's stepbrother results in cases of mistaken identity, and many acts of blatant greed, selfishness and plain stupidity that almost ruin two pending marriages. Many of the situations and characters in the play are recognizable in the twentieth century. Mr. Hardcastle's concern with his daughter's dress and prospects for marriage are akin to a father not wanting his little girl to start wearing makeup and high heels... ...es common comic tools such as mistaken identity and conflict between lovers to a higher plane. It is perfectly understandable that this comedy is still popular today in many places including America, where it is performed quite frequently in period dress. I missed the opportunity to see it performed while in Colonial Williamsburg a year ago, but hope that I might one day have another opportunity. I'm sure that it is even more amusing on stage than it is on paper. Casts Lists: original performance, March 15, 1773, Covent Garden October 3, 1775, Drury Lane Works Cited Danziger, Marlies K. Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978 Ferguson, Oliver W. "Kate's Stratagem and the Naming of the She Stoops to Conquer." Restoration and 18th Century Theatre Research. Illinois: Loyola University of Chicago, 1991 She Stoops to Conquer Essay -- Oliver Goldsmith She Stoops to Conquer Oliver Goldsmith had an immediate hit on his hands after the first performance of his play She Stoops to Conquer on March 15, Covent Garden. During the eighteenth century She Stoops to Conquer was popular throughout England and its popularity even spread to the then still young, America. Before its debut, Goldsmith took great pains in choosing the right title for his play. Some of the titles that he rejected were The Old House a New Inn, The Mistakes of the Night (which became its subtitle), and The Belle's Stratagem (Ferguson 26). One of the reasons that this comedy was such a hit was its departure from the high minded, more dramatic comedy of the day. Though the play does not rely solely on slapstick comedy, some of its best scenes are farcical. The play itself has been called a "laughing comedy" and many of the best comic moments are still as funny today as they were over 200 years ago (Danziger 57). Tying with Dryden's Amphityron, She Stoops to Conquer is the most entertaining eighteenth-century play that I have read to date. The plot concerns the "Mistakes of the Night" and the resulting problems that come between two sets of lovers. The story centers on Charles Marlow and George Hasting's attempts to court Kate Hardcastle and Constance Neville, and how a practical joke played by Kate's stepbrother results in cases of mistaken identity, and many acts of blatant greed, selfishness and plain stupidity that almost ruin two pending marriages. Many of the situations and characters in the play are recognizable in the twentieth century. Mr. Hardcastle's concern with his daughter's dress and prospects for marriage are akin to a father not wanting his little girl to start wearing makeup and high heels... ...es common comic tools such as mistaken identity and conflict between lovers to a higher plane. It is perfectly understandable that this comedy is still popular today in many places including America, where it is performed quite frequently in period dress. I missed the opportunity to see it performed while in Colonial Williamsburg a year ago, but hope that I might one day have another opportunity. I'm sure that it is even more amusing on stage than it is on paper. Casts Lists: original performance, March 15, 1773, Covent Garden October 3, 1775, Drury Lane Works Cited Danziger, Marlies K. Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978 Ferguson, Oliver W. "Kate's Stratagem and the Naming of the She Stoops to Conquer." Restoration and 18th Century Theatre Research. Illinois: Loyola University of Chicago, 1991

A Brief Survey of the Languages of the Neelam Valley

[i]A brief Survey of the Languages of the Neelam Valley Khawaja A. Rehman[1] The Neelam Valley, formerly known as Drawa, is located at an altitude of 4000 to 7500 feet. However, the mountain peaks around the valley range up to 17,000 feet. The total length of the valley is about 150 kilometers and according to the census of 1998 the population was 120,661 with 84 separate villages (online census report). In 2005, it was given the status of a distinct and has been known since then as District Neelam with two tehsils: Sharda and Athmuqam. Previously, it was subdivision of Muzaffarabad District with its headquarters at Athmuqam. Before partition in 1947, the tehsil headquarters of the area was Titwal, now under Indian control, the area was known as Drawa and the river flowing through the valley was called Kishan Ganga (Stein: 1900). The name of the river after partition has been changed to Neelam and the name of the territory to Neelam Valley. The word Neelam comes from the name of a village on the right bank of the river about 12 kilometers upstream from Athmuqam. Moreover, there are also two other small villages known as Neelam in the region. The river Neelam originates from Indian administered Kashmir and enters Pakistani administered Kashmir, known as Azad Kashmir, at Taubutt. Beyond this point it is still referred to as Kishan Ganga. The population lives on both sides of the Neelam or Kishan Ganga River. A few villages on the left bank of the Neelam valley fall under Indian control This region remains a relatively uncharted territory on the linguistic map. The Linguistic Survey of India (edited by Grierson in the early 20th century) does not contain substantive information on the languages of the valley, and neither does one find much information about the area in the more recent literature (Schmidt: 1981, 2002, Koul: 2004, Hook and Koul: 2002, Radloff: 1999, Grimes: 2000, O’Leary: 1992). The fact that the Line of Control runs right through the valley is one obvious reason as to why the area is hardly accessible to researchers presently. However, before partition the area was inaccessible due to nonexistence of road link In this paper, I present a brief overview of the language varieties spoken in the Neelam Valley based on recent research as well as my experience as a resident of the area. These varieties include forms of languages that are spoken widely elsewhere, such as Hindko, Gojri, Shina (Guresi and Chilasi), Kashmiri, and even Pashto, but also the rather distinct language of the village of Kundal Shahi, located near the Neelam district headquarters, Athmuqam (Rehman & Baart 2005).. Hindko . The Hindko language spoken in the Neelam Valley is usually known as Parmi , by the communities other than the Kashmiries and PArim by the Kashmiries and sometimes Hindko or Pahari as well. The word Parmi or PArim’ is derived from the Kashmiri word ApArim ‘from the other side’ Historically speaking the Hindko speaking communities lived in the highlands of the Kashmir Valley and these highlanders were referred to by the Kashmiries as apArim.. Afterwards the use of this word would have been extended to their language as well. The word ‘pArim’ for Hindko is also used in Indian administered Kashmir as the expression I found in a Kashmiri comedy recorded in Srinagar. The use of Hindko has never been documented before in any part of Kashmir. In traditional linguistic literature the Hindko language spoken in Kashmir is referred to as Pahari In 2004, I recorded a word list, used as part of the Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan, from eight different locations in the Neelam valley. I analyzed the word list in collaboration with Dr. Joan Baart, who has been working on the languages of Northern Pakistan for the last 13 years. The analysis of the word list showed that the variety spoken in the Neelam valley was closer to the variety of the Kaghan Valley than that of the Murree Hills. In traditional literature, the language spoken in the Murree Hills is classified as Pahari and that of spoken in the Kaghan Valley as Hindko. The conclusion was also confirmed in informal discussions with the Hindko speakers as well as the Hindko speakers from the Kaghan Valley and Mansehra. This proves that the Northern dialect of Hindko is also spoken in Azad Kashmir and my hypothesis is that same variety is also spoken on the other side of Line of control. There are many villages in Indian administered Kashmir along the line of control, at a distance of only few yards from the villages of Azad Kashmir. The Line of Control actually divides some villages in the Neelam Valley. Linguistically speaking, it may be interesting to look into the speech differences that have evolved during the last 58 years among adjacent villages lying on either side of the Line of control. It is worth distinguishing two populations of native Hindko speakers in the Neelam Valley: ethnic Hindko speakers and the Hindko speakers of other ethnicities. According to the oral histories Hindko speakers came from Mansehra and the Kaghan Valley, which parallels the Neelam Valley where as the non-ethnic Hindko speakers came from either the Valley of Kashmir or other parts of South Asia. In spite of the fact that most of the groups originally speaking languages other than Hindko have shifted to Hindko, they retain a strong ethnic consciousness, identifying along ethnic rather than linguistic lines The variety of Hindko spoken in the Neelam valley very interestingly retains, unlike other varieties of Hindko, Pahari and Punjabi, the old Indo-Aryan voiced aspirated stops /bh/, /dh/, /Dh/, /gh/, in the initial positions. However my present research shows that a shift is going on very rapidly. The reason being that the frequent contact with the Hindko speakers of other varieties of Hindko, Punjabi and Pahari speakers, is a major cause of this change. The shift is quite evident along the roadside and in main towns, where the influx of the outsiders is very frequent. The settlements away from the main road and further up stream from Dudnial, show strong retention of this feature. The influence of the Punjabi is not only restricted to the Phonology but also at syntax level. The dative and accusative marker kUo f traditional Hindko is being replaced by the nuu of Punjabi. Hindko is the predominant language of the Neelam Valley. It is the main lingua franca. Speakers of other languages are usually proficient in Hindko except some women in a few Kashmiri and Shina speaking villages. It is also encroaching upon the languages of smaller groups. Virtually all members of the other language communities are bilingual in Hindko. A process of language shift to Hindko is going on in many of these communities. In some of these communities this process started relatively recently, while in others it has been going on much longer. . Kashmiri Kashmiri is the second largest language of the area. it is spoken by the ethnic Kashmiries. However many kashmiries have switched to Hindko in the last two centuries. The villages where Kasmiri is spoken exclusively as a mother tongue include: Halmat, Sardari, ShunDdas, Tehjian, Malik Seri and Khawaja Seri. Among these the former three are adjacent to each other at the distance of about 193 kilometers from Muzaffarabad, the capital city of Azad Kashmir. And if we go further up the stream we come to Nekro, where majority are Kashmiri mother tongue speakers with a few families of Shina speakers. The village Nekro is adjacent to Karimabad, formerly known as Sutti, where Guresi Shina is spoken as a mother tongue. The residents of these villages are less proficient in Hindko than other Kashmiri speakers of the region. They usually prefer to use Urdu with the Hindko speakers. The latter two villages Malik Seri and Khawaja Seri are adjacent to each other and normally known as Khawaja Seri but the revenue department of the state lists them separately. These villages are bout 130 kilometers from Muzaffarabad. Tehjian, another Kashmiri speaking village, is about seven kilometers further down stream from Khawaja Seri Almost all individuals of these villages are bilingual in Hindko. Apart from these there are some six other villages where Kashmiri is the language of majority group. The variety of Kashmiri spoken in the Neelam Valley is closer to the variety spoken in northern Kashmir especially that of the Kupwara District, of Indian administered Kashmir rather than that of Muzaffarabad city. Although the Kashmiri spoken in Muzaffarabad is intelligible to the Kashmiries of the Neelam Valley, they can understand the variety of Srinagar better than that of Muzaffarabad. The Kashmiri spoken in the Neelam Valley has retained some archaic features. For example, Nealam Valey Kashmiri has daram maj ‘woman’ and daram boi ‘friend’, which are hardly found in other varieties of Kashmiri. The word daram is probably derived from the Sanskrit word dharma. Moreover, my research reveals that the Neelam Valley dialect of Kashmiri retains the third person plural subject agreement suffix –ukh more consistently than other dialects.. Speakers of the Srinagar dialect accept this usage, but it is not in common use, suggesting that it is an archaism. It also shares the retroflex flap /R/ with the variety of Kupwara, which is an alveolar flap in the variety of Srinagar. A historically very important town located five kilometers upstream from Khawaja Seri and Malik Seri, known as Shardi or Sharda, is headquarters of the tehsil of the same name. . A marvelous Hindu/ Buddhist temple is still standing and ruins of a great civilization are still visible. The place had been a seat of learning for a long time and it is likely that the Sharda Script developed to write the languages of the region. The script was developed some 1200years back and was popular in most parts of the South Asia and was named after Sharda (Deamb:online). No substantial research has been carried out so far in Sharda. It is very much likely that the script would have been developed in Sharda as this place had been a very famous seat of learning (Stein: 1900) Before partition the place was frequented by the Hindus from different parts of India and was esteemed sacred. Kundal Shahi Kundal Shahi is a village that is located in the Neelam valley 74 kilometers upstream from Muzaffarabad, the capital city of Azad Kashmir, and seven kilometers from the district headquarters ‘Athmuqam’. The Kundal Shahi anguage is spoken by an ethnic group, called Qureshi. They make up the majority of the Kundal Shahi village. There are some other tribes, but they do not speak it as their mother tongue (Rehman and Baart 2005). The people claim to have migrated from a town called Tajjar, presently in the Indian part of Kashmir some three centuries back. No other variety of the language is known. A first publication on the language, ‘A First L ook at the Language of Kundal Shahi in Azad Kashmir’ appeared in March 2005 (Rehman &. Baart 2005) The tribe comprises approximately 1,500 to 2,000 people(ibid). In recent years a process of language shift has been taking place to Hindko. Almost all members of the community are bilingual in Hindko and are very rapidly shifting to Hindko. Gojri Third largest ethnic group in Neelam valley is Gojars. Basically there are two types of Gojars: settled Gojars and nomads or Bakarwals. Settled Gojars Local folktales indicate that the settled Gojars are the earliest settlers of Neelam valley. They are believed to have migrated to the Neelam Valley to find summer pastures for their goats and sheep and gradually settled down permanently. These Gojars no longer raise sheep and goats on a large scale. Their villages, Marnat, Kharigam, Kuttan and Ashkot, are scattered all over the Neelam valley. The interesting thing about these Gojars is that the majority have abandoned their mother tongue and adopted Hindko. However, there are still a few settlements among the Gojars who speak their mother tongue at least at home. The settled Gojars hardly use Gojri in bazaars and other public places in front of speakers of other languages. The Bakarwals The Bakerwals ‘goatherds’ are those Gojars who still raise goats and sheep. They are not permanent residents of the Neelam Valley, but come during the summer with their animals, especially goats, sheep and mules (for carrying load). They go to high pastures for the summer and sometimes even travel to the Northern Areas and the Kaghan Valley. These people usually go to the Punjab plains and lower parts of Azad Kashmir during the winters. They use the Gojri language in their daily communication and show a strong tendency for language maintenance, reducing the probability of. Language shift among these people in the short term. The total population of these nomadic Gojars is not available. However, according to the crude estimate of the Wildlife Department of Azad Kashmir, the summer of 2005 saw a total of 150,000 goats and sheep traveling into the Neelam Valley (personal communication with Manzoor a local official) Shina Although the Gojars are the third largest ethnic group in the Neelam Valley, third largest language spoken is Shina. Though Shina is only spoken in three villages, there are two clearly different varieties of Shina, Guresi Shina and Chilasi Shina. Guresi Shina Guresi shina is spoken in Taubutt, the last village of the Neelam valley and its adjacent village: Karimabad (Sutti) Taubutt is about 215 kilometers from Muzaffarabad. Both villages are on the right bank of the river Neelam. The language is locally known as ShiNa and some times Dardi. Total population of these two villages was 1332 in 1998 and majority among them are Lone by tribe. Most of the Shina speakers of the area are bilingual in Kashmiri. They use Kashmiri with their neighboring Kashmiries. They have also borrowed many Kashmiri words. Their Hindko intelligibility is very poor and with Hindko speakers they usually use Urdu. Moreover, they don’t consider themselves grouped in any way with the Shina speakers of Phulwei. On the other hand they are culturally closer to the Kashmiri speakers of Halmat and Sardari and associate themselves with these people rather than Phulweites. There are intermarriages between the neighboring Kashmiri communities and there is no record of intermarrying with the Shina speakers of Phulwei. According to my informants the mutual intelligibility with the people of Phulwei is very poor and their language is different in vocabulary and pronunciation. They claim to have relatives on the other side of the line of control and also claim that their variety is similar to the variety spoken in the Gures valley of Indian part of Kashmir. However when I compared some words with the Guresi Shina collected on the other side (Schimdt: 2000) I found most of the words quite different These Shina speakers also claim that they can communicate easily with the people from Qamri – a town in the northern areas – without any difficulty and their variety is quite closer to theirs. Chilasi Shina Phulwei a large village with many sub villages, locally known as Mozas, is at the distance of 180 kilometers from Muzaffarabad Total population of the village was according to 1998 census 2912. My current research shows that the in the beginning, about some two centuries back, the first group of these shin speakers settled at ‘Pain Seri (meaning lower plain). This group included four brothers who had migrated from Nait, a town in Chilas, owing to some family feud. Majority of the people claim to belong to lone tribe, have assumed local titles. Clans living in this village include: Kachray, Nasray, Butt, Sheikh and Rajput etc. The majority belong to Kachray and both Kachray and Nasray claim to belong to Lone clan. It is very interesting that in Taubutt and Karimabad the same tribe is in majority. Grierson (1915) claims by using secondary information, that in Nait , Chilas some people speak Guresi Shina. However neither any research (Schimdt: 2002, Carla: 1992, 1999) reports such kind of variety and the variety spoken by the people of Phulwei also negates the statement of Grierson. My respondents belonged to all groups and all claimed to have come from Nait. Their mutual intelligibility with those of from Nait is far better than the shins of Taubutt and Sutti/ Karimabad. They have their close relations in Chilas and frequently travel to Chilas. However for the last nine years the intermarrying with these people has been terminated. This boycott is a result of feud, which claimed many lives on either side some nine years back. The people in the Neelam Valley are normally very peaceful but the people of Phulwei are known for their feuds and fights all over the region. They themselves also admit the fact. One of my informants told me that there are very frequent murders and narrated that his grand father had committed seven murders, his father three and his son killed a man. Locally these people are known as Dards and they themselves call the Hindko speakers Gojars irrespective of their ethnic group. They have no record of intermarrying with the people of Karimabad/ Sutti or Taubutt. However there are some instances of their intermarrying with the local Hindko Speakers. According to them the Shina or Dardi spoken in Taubutt and Karimabad is not standard variety and refer to it as kachi ‘half-baked’ In the village there are few Hindko speaking households but they are bilingual in Shina Pashto Dhaki and Changnar are two villages of Neelam valley, where Pashto is the mother tongue of all residents. The speakers of the language refer to their language as Pukhto/Pakhto. The population of these two villages, according to1998 census, was 1087 with 170 households. The people claim that some two centuries back their forefathers migrated from Swat, a region in Northern Pakistan, and settled in Dhaki and few others, among these, settled in Kashmir valley as well. The main reason, according to the oral history for choosing the place, was its conducive and rich environment for raising livestock. Dhaki is at about two hours walking distance from the left bank of the river Neelam and later some, among these, shifted to another nearby village Changnar. Both villages are right on the Line of Control, separating Indian part of Kashmir from that of Azad Kashmir. Almost all male members of the group are bilingual in Hindko. Some of the females of the group can understand Hindko but most of them are not bilingual in Hindko. The reason being that the men have very frequent contact with the Hindko speaking population where as the women are less likely to travel outside these villages and have no Hindko speaking community nearby. During the last fifteen years cross border firing between the Indo-Pak troops has caused large scale migration from these villages and this migration has led to the language loss at large scale. It will be very interesting to document the degree of this loss The Pashto spoken by the population is quite different from other varieties of Pashto and is a dialect on its own right. These Pashto speakers can communicate with the Pashto speakers from outside but they can’t understand them fully. My current research shows that they have assimilated many Hindko words into their Pashto, and also have kept some archaic words of Pashto, which are no longer used by the other Pashto speakers in Pakistan. . No linguistic literature has mentioned the existence of Pashto in any part of Kashmir (Grierson 1921, Hallberg 1992, Personal communication with Hook and Koul. To my Knowledge this is only settlement in both parts of Kashmir who speaks Pashto. In the Neelam Valley, apart from these Pashto speakers, there are some other groups who claim to be ethnic Pathans, but have apparently shifted to Hindko long time ago. Locally these groups are still known as Pathans and they also refer themselves as Pathan. Present Member of legislature and minister in the cabinet of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, from the District Neelam, also belongs to the same group. . Conclusion: Apart from these local languages Urdu and English are also used. These languages are medium of instruction. No indigenous language is taught in schools. No standard orthography is available for these local languages. However, Some Kashmiri literatures, especially poetry books, published before partition, are available at some houses. Lots of borrowings from Urdu and English are obvious in these local languages. This is a preliminary overview of the languages of the Neelam Valley. The aim of this study is to introduce this linguistically rich but undiscovered area to the outer world and invite scholars to carry out linguistic research in the region. And also create awareness about the languages loss among the speakers of these languages References: Barbara F. Grimes, Ed, 2000 fourteenth edition) Ethnologue; volume1, Languages of the world; SIL International, Dallas, Texas, USA. (http://www. ethnologue. com/web. asp) Deambi, B. K. Kaul. The Sharada Script:Origin and Development. in Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh linguistic predicament Eds. P. N. Pushp and K. Warikoo: Himalayan Research and Cultural Foundation Har-Anand Publications online:http://www. koshur. org/Linguistic/3. html Federal bureaue of sensus online: http://www. isepak. com/Forms/VillageListMUZAFFARABAD. pdf. Grierson, George. 1915. Linguistic survey of India, volume 8,part 2, 150-190. Calcutta Hallberg, Daniel G. and Calinda E. Hallberg. 1999. Indus Kohistani preliminary phonological and Morphological analysis. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies and Summer Institute of Linguistics. Hook Edwin Peter & Omkar N. Koul. 2002. Eds. Koul N Omkar & Wali Kashi Top ics in Kashmiri linguistics, P: 130- 143, Creative books New Delhi Joan L. G. Baart . 2003. Pakistani languages and society: Problems and Prospects. NIPS and SIL, ed. with Ghulam Hyder Sindhi Koul, N Omkar, 2004,Kashmiri: A Grammatical Sketch In The Indo-Aryan Languages. Eds. George Cardona and Dhanesh Jain, Rutledge, London Local revenue department. The cesus report 1998. O’ Leary, Clear. (ed). 1992. Sociolinguistic Survey of Northern Pakistan. 5 Volumes. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies and Summer Institute of Linguistics Radloff, Carla F. 1999. Aspects of the Sound System of Gilgit Shina. Islamabad: National Institute of Pakistan Studies and Summer Institute of Linguistics Rehman, Khawaja. A & Joan Baart (2005) A First Look At The Language of Kundal Shahi in Azad Kashmir, SILewps, 2005-2008, Dallas, Texas, USA. http://www. sil. org/silewp/abstract. asp? ref=2005-008 . Rehman, Khawaja. A. 2005. Ergativity in Kundal Shahi, Kashmiri and Hindko: A paper presented in 11th Himalayan Languages symposium, 6-9Dec 2005, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand Rehman, Khawaja. A. 2006. Hindko: A Grammatical Sketch (Forth coming) Schmidt, Ruth Laila. 2002. A grammatical comparison of Shina dialects in Himalayan Languages past and present, 33:55 Ed, Anju Saxena. Mouton de gruyter, Berlin Stein, M. A. 1999. KalahaNa,s Rajatarangni. A chorological of Kings of Kashmir. Trans. Mirpur: Verinag Publishers. Originally published: London: constable, 1900 ———————– [1] The author is a PhD candidate at Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan ———————– [i] Paper was presented at the 19th European Conference on Modern South Asian Studies, Panel 31: ‘Linguistics in Lesser-known languages in South Asia’, 27-30 June 2006, Leiden, The Netherlands. http://213. 207. 98. 217/index. php? q=node/56